Jack+Hirsch

REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
===Obesity is endemic in American society (Flum, Kahn & Dellinger, 2007). Two out of three adults are either overweight or obese, provoking a cascade of chronic diseases ranging from diabetes to osteoarthritis (Flegal, Carroll, Ogden, et al, 2010). Myriad factors have been postulated as contributors for this condition, primarily focusing upon reduced calorie expenditure coupled with excess consumption (McTigue, Harris, Hempill, et al, 2003). One of the mechanisms for regulation of such consumption is hunger, and its opposite, satiety (Kruse, 2001). Approaches which influence these may be useful in helping reduce food intake.=== ===A variety of factors have been postulated to impact satiety of both external and internal origin. External factors in food include bulk and volume, degree of flavoring, visual presentation, and relative fat, protein, and sugar content (Cabanac, 1990). Internal mechanisms include the psychological, hormonal, physical, and chemosensory spheres. In the psychological realm, anywhere from the number of people with whom one dines, the duration of the meal, whether the television is playing during the meal, or even the belief that the food is of greater nutritional value, all affect the satiety level (Rozin, 1990, DeCastro, 2000, Meiselman, 2006, Lowe, Bocarsley, DelParigi, 2008). Hormones, including gherlin, and leptin similarly can affect satiety (Teff & Kapadia, 2008). Ingestion of food physically expands the stomach, causing stretch receptors to fire, signaling a sense of fullness (Peters & Mela, 2008). The effect of volume of food inducing satiety has been labeled, allesthesia (Bartoshuk, 1990). The chemosensory, system, through smell and taste, regulates feelings of hunger through the process of sensory specific satiety (Rolls, 1993). All of these work together in regulating perception of fullness. Thus satiety is not solely based on the number of calories consumed, but rather, on more complex internal and external factors.=== ===Regardless of the underlying physiological mechanisms, assessment of degree of satiety produced through consumption of different foods has been proposed (Holt, Brank-Miller, Petocz, et al., 1995). In this study, isocaloric foods were categorized based on degree of satiety compared to a standard of white bread in 13 adults in Australia. In an analogous study, eight isocaloric candy bars were characterized regarding degree of satiety, based on the similar standard of white bread (Hirsch, 2010).=== ===Use of commercially available chewing gum may act to induce satiety. Chewing alone, without ingestion, has been suggested as a pathway for induction of satiety, possibly through jaw movement provoking release of serotonin, which indirectly acts to suppress appetite (Curro, 2008). Experiments in adults have generally demonstrated mastication of chewing gum reduces hunger, and subsequent consumption. Mastication of unflavored gum decreased self-reported hunger ratings (Todoff & Alleva, 1990). Consistent with these findings, food consumption after ten minutes of gum chewing was also demonstrated to be reduced (Sakata, 1995). Likewise, chewing sweetened and artificially sweetened gum for 30-45 minutes over a three-hour period decreased both hunger for sweets and sweet snack consumption (Hetherington, 2005, Hetherington & Boyland, 2007).=== ===Contradictory results have also been reported. Chewing artificially sweetened gum compared to no gum chewing was shown to actually increase hunger (Todoff & Alleva, 1990). In another study, fifty adults chewing a 3 gram serving of Wrigley’s Juicy Fruit Gum for twenty minutes had no effect on visual analogue scale (VAS) measurement of hunger rating (Julis and Mattes, 2007). Thus, the impact of chewing gum on satiety remains a question.===

Hetherington, M.(2005) Attending To The Sensory Characteristics of Foods During Eating: The Effects of Distraction. //Chemical Senses//, 30, pp. A40-A41
===Hirsch, A.R., Li, J., Kao, A., Hayes, M., Choe, M., Lu, Y. (2007) Effect of Television Viewing on Sensory-Specific Satiety. Are Leno and Letterman Obesogenic. //89th Annual Meeting endocrine Society Abstract Book//, pp. 175===

Kruse, H.P. (2001) Can satiety be measured? //Nahrung/Food//, 45, pp. 298-301.
===Lowe, M.R., Bocarsley, M.E., DelParigi, A. (2008) Human eating motivation in times of plenty: biological, environmental, and psychosocial influences. In: Harris, R.B.S., Mattes, R.D. (Eds.). //Appetite and food intake: behavioral and psychological considerations.// Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 95-112.===

Marks, L.E. (2002) The Role of Attention in Chemosensation. //Food Quality and Preference//, 14, pp. 147-155
===McTigue, K.M., Harris, R., Hemphill, B., et al. (2003) Screening and interventions for obesity in adults: summary of the evidence for the US Preventative Services Task Force. //Ann Intern Med,// 139, pp. 933-949.===

Mendewhall, W., Reinmuth, J.E. (1978) //Statistic for management and economics//. North Scitvate, MA: Duxbury Press.
===O’ Doherty, J., Rolls, E.T., Francis, S., Bowtell, R., McGlone, F., Kobal, G., Renner, B., Ahne, G. (2000) Sensory-Specific Satiety-Related Olfactory Activation of the Human Orbitofrontal Cortex. //Chemical Senses//, 4 pp. 893-897===

Pelletier, C.A., Dhanaraj, G.E. (2006) The Effect of Taste and Palatbility on Lingual Swallowing Pressure. //Dysphagia//, 21 pp. 212-128
===Peters, H.P.F., Mela, D.J. (2008) The role of the gastrointestinal tract in satiation, satiety, and food intake: evidence from research in humans. In: Harris, R.B.S., Mattes, R.D. (Eds.). //Appetite and food intake: behavioral and psychological considerations.// Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 187-211.===

Rosenthal, R. (1966) Experimenter Effects in Behavioral Research//.// //New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts//: New York, NY, USA, pp.464
===Rozin, P. (1990) The importance of social factors in understanding the acquisition of food habits. In: Capaldi, E.D., Powley, T.L. (Eds.). //Taste, experience, and feeding.// Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, pp. 255-269.===

Tang, A.H., Kirch, J.D. (1971) Appetite Suppression and Central Nervous System Stimulation in the Rhesus Monkey. //Psychopharmacologia//, 21, pp. 139-146
===Teff, K.L., Kapadia, C. (2008) Role of postabsorptive endocrine factors on human feeding and regulation of body adiposity. In: Harris, R.B.S., Mattes, R.D. (Eds.). //Appetite and food intake: behavioral and psychological considerations.// Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 235-252.=== ===Warwick, Z.S., Hall, W.G., Pappas T.N., Schiffman, S.S. (1993) Taste and Smell Sensation Enhance the Satiating Effect of Both a High-Carbohydrate and a Hight-Fat Meal in Human. //Physiol Behav//, 53, pp. 553-563===

Weiner, B.C. (2010) The Ice Diet. //Annals of Internal Medicine.// ; 153:4:279
===Bartoshuk, L.M. (1990) Distinctions between taste and smell relevant to the role of experience. In: Capaldi, E.D., Powley, T.L. (Eds.). //Taste, experience, and feeding.// Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, pp. 62-72.=== ===Cabanac, M. (1990) Taste: the maximization of multidimensional pleasure. In: Capaldi, E.D., Powley, T.L. (Eds.). //Taste, experience, and feeding.// Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, pp. 28-42.===

Kruse, H.P. (2001) Can satiety be measured? //Nahrung/Food//, 45, 298-301.
===Lowe, M.R., Bocarsley, M.E., DelParigi, A. (2008) Human eating motivation in times of plenty: biological, environmental, and psychosocial influences. In: Harris, R.B.S., Mattes, R.D. (Eds.). //Appetite and food intake: behavioral and psychological considerations.// Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 95-112.=== ===McTigue, K.M., Harris, R., Hemphill, B., et al. (2003) Screening and interventions for obesity in adults: summary of the evidence for the US Preventative Services Task Force. //Ann Intern Med,// 139, 933-949.===

Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., Curtin, L.R., McDowell, M.A., Tabak, C.J., & Flegal, K.M. (2006) Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States. //JAMA//, 295, 1549-1555.
===Peters, H.P.F., Mela, D.J. (2008) The role of the gastrointestinal tract in satiation, satiety, and food intake: evidence from research in humans. In: Harris, R.B.S., Mattes, R.D. (Eds.). //Appetite and food intake: behavioral and psychological considerations.// Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 187-211.===

Rosenthal, R. (1996) //Experimenter effects in behavioral research//. New York: Appleton-Centruy-Crofts, p. 464.
===Rozin, P. (1990) The importance of social factors in understanding the acquisition of food habits. In: Capaldi, E.D., Powley, T.L. (Eds.). //Taste, experience, and feeding.// Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, pp. 255-269.=== ===Teff, K.L., Kapadia C. (2008) Role of postabsorptive endocrine factors on human feeding and regulation of body adiposity. In: Harris, R.B.S., Mattes, R.D. (Eds.). //Appetite and food intake: behavioral and psychological considerations.// Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp. 235-252.===

Todoff, M., Alleva, A. (1990) Oral stimulation with aspartame increases hunger. //Psysiol Behav,// 47, 555-559.
===Trolano, R.P., Flegal, K.M., Kuczmarski, R.J., Campbell, S.M., & Johnson, C.L. (1995) Overweight prevalence and trends for children and adolescents: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1963 to 1991. //Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine//, 149, 1085-1091.===